Contenido Handbook of Tunnel Fire Safety

Handbook of Tunnel Fire Safety is the first book to span the spectrum of state-of-the-art knowledge in tunnel fire safety science and engineering.

The construction of longer and increasingly complex tunnels and rapid changes in processes, materials and technology mean it is more important than ever to stay up-to-date. Drawing on the latest research and the extensive experience of the authors, this book is intended to help readers identify limitations in tunnel designs, technologies and models and – ultimately – make decisions to prevent unacceptable risk.

Handbook of Tunnel Fire Safety includes international case studies of real-life tunnel fire incidents highlighting the lessons learned coverage of the latest tunnel fire safety research, including the UPTUN project expert international authorship imparting knowledge and experience of tunnel fire safety science, technology, engineering, management and emergency services extensive references direct readers to sources of in-depth information on specific topics.

Handbook of Tunnel Fire Safety comprehensively covers the complex subject of tunnel fire safety – from heat release rates to modelling and human behaviour – and is an essential resource for tunnel designers, contractors, operators and regulators; tunnel fire safety researchers, consultants and equipment manufacturers; and fire brigades and other emergency service providers.

Part I Real tunnel fires

A history of fire incidents in tunnels

Introduction
Fires in road tunnels
Fires in rail tunnels
Concluding comments
A history of tunnel-fire incidents
References

Tunnel fire investigation I: the Channel Tunnel fire, 18 November 1996

Introduction
The Channel Tunnel fire
The tunnel system
The fire safety system
The incident
The investigation
Method
Findings from the incident
Issues, problems and lessons for fire investigation
Discussion
Conclusions
Acknowledgements
Appendix 2A: The Channel Tunnel fires of 2006 and 2008
Appendix 2B: About the CTSA
References

Tunnel fire investigation II: the St. Gotthard Tunnel fire, 24 October 2001

Introduction
Incident summary
Aims of the investigation into the fire and explosion
Summary description of the incident zone
Chronology of the incident
Discussion of the chronology
The origin of the fire
Cause of fire
Propagation of the fire across HGV 1 and HGV 2
Spread of the fire to HGVs 3 to 7
Thermal degradation of the vehicles beyond HGV 7
General discussion
Conclusions
Appendix 3A: mportant factors relating to the investigation of a fire in a road tunnel

Tunnel fire investigation III: the Burnley Tunnel fire, 23 March 2007

Introduction
Fire-fighting systems
Smoke and thermal detection
Communications
Signs
Access and egress
The incident
Discussion
Conclusion
Reference

Part II Prevention and protection

Prevention and protection: overview

Introduction
Risk as a systemic product
Incompleteness of assessment: allow for the unanticipated
The system changes
Prevention and protection as basic concepts
Context and causation
Prevention and protection in tunnels
Fire Safety ManagementFire prevention
Fire protection
Summary
Appendix 5A:
Thoughts on avoiding major tunnel fires
References

Fire detection systems

Introduction
Problems in detecting fires
Performance requirements for fire detection systems
Different approaches to alerting tunnel users
Currently available tunnel fire detectors
Future trends and emerging new technologies
Conclusions
References

Passive fire protection in concrete tunnels

Introduction
Types of tunnel
The behaviour of concrete subject to fire
Passive fire protection
Requirements
Secondary tunnel-lining systems
Tunnel cladding and panelling systems
Concrete additives
Other passive fire protection systems
Active fire protection
Concluding comments
References

Water-based fire-suppression systems for tunnels

Introduction
The principles of fire sprinklers
The dynamics of fire suppression by water sprays
The principle of water-based fire protection for tunnels
Large-scale trials
Evaluation of fixed fire-fighting systems for tunnels
Questions remaining
Outlook
References

Tunnel ventilation: state of the art

Introduction
Types of ventilation systems
Mechanical ventilation
Ventilation system components
Facilities
Technology
References
Further reading

The use of tunnel ventilation for fire safety

Introduction
Modes of operation of tunnel ventilation systems during a fire
Influence of ventilation on tunnel fire characteristics
Modelling tunnel flows
Conclusions
References

The influence of tunnel ventilation on fire behaviour

Introduction
Basic fire science
Definitions
Methodology
A note on naturally ventilated tunnel fires
Results for HGV fires
Further observations on the growth rate of HGV fires: aggregated data
Results for pool fires
Results for car fires
Discussion
Conclusions
Acknowledgements
References

Part III Tunnel fire dynamics

A history of experimental tunnel fires

Introduction
Fire experiments to gain an understanding of fire phenomena
Fire experiments to evaluate sprinkler performance
Fire experiments to test or commission tunnel installations
Fire experiments to investigate detector performance
Experimental testing on a smaller scale
Laboratory-scale experiments
Non-tunnel fire experiments
Concluding comments
References

Fire dynamics in tunnels

Nomenclature
Introduction
Tunnel fires and open fires
Tunnel fires and compartment fires
Fuel control and ventilation control
Stratification of smoke in tunnels
Average flow conditions in longitudinal flow
Determination of heat-release rates in tunnel fires
Influence of ventilation on the heat-release rate
Flame length
Large fires in tunnels with longitudinal flow
Fire spread in tunnels
References

Heat release rates in tunnel fires: a summary

Introduction
Overview of HRR data
Conclusions
References

CFD modelling of tunnel fires

Nomenclature
Introduction
Mathematical overview
Physical phenomena in tunnel-fire situations
Application of CFD techniques to tunnel fires
Validation and verification
Case study: the Memorial Tunnel experiments
Concluding remarks
References

Control volume modelling of tunnel fires

Introduction
Limitations
Application of control volume modelling to tunnel fires
Application of control volume models in tunnel fire safety
Summary
References

One-dimensional and multi-scale modelling of tunnel ventilation and fires

Introduction
One-dimensional models
Multi-scale models
References

Non-deterministic modelling and tunnel fires

Introduction
Probabilistic models
Statistical models
Logic trees
Points schemes
Caveats in general
Concluding comment
References

Part IV Fire safety management and human factors

Human behaviour during tunnel fires

Introduction
Some recent tunnel fires
Towards understanding human behaviour in tunnel fires
Responding to a developing emergency
Recent developments
Concluding remarks
References

Egress behaviour during road tunnel fires

Introduction
Scientific literature about tunnel egress behaviours
Understanding the determinants of human behaviour
Accounting for the specifics of road tunnel fires
A generic model for egress behaviour in tunnel fires
Conclusion: taking action to optimise egress behaviours in road tunnel fires
References

Recommended behaviour for road tunnel users

Introduction
Safety and risks in road traffic
Objectives for safety in road tunnels
Road users as a factor influencing safety in road tunnels
Proposed measures for road users
Conclusions and outlook
References

Transport of hazardous goods

Introduction
Road tunnel classification
Roads tunnel hazard quantification
Rail transport and road/rail inter-modality
Conclusions
References

A systemic approach to tunnel fire safety management

Introduction
A tunnel fire safety management system model (TFSMS)
Structural organisation of the TFSMS
Communication and control in the TFSMS
Fire safety performance
Fire safety plans
Fire risk indices
The maximum risk acceptable (MRA), the acceptable range of fire risk and the viability
Conclusion
Appendix 23A: Examples of systems 1–5
Appendix 23B: The four organisational principles
Appendix 23C: Control and communication paradigms
References

Road tunnel operation during a fire emergency

General introduction
The stakeholders in tunnel safety
The factors that influence tunnel operational safety
The nature of incidents
Liaison between the tunnel operator and emergency services
Incident response
Decisions and actions

Tunnel fire safety and the law

Introduction
Legal investigations follow incidents
Legal investigations scrutinise past decisions
Conclusions
References

Part V Emergency procedures

Emergency procedures in road tunnels

Introduction
Managing safety in tunnels
Tunnel design
Tunnel management
Emergency response
Integration of design and management with emergency response
Conclusions
References

Emergency procedures in rail tunnels

Introduction
Standard operational procedures
Contingency planning
Considerations
Conclusion
A detailed example: emergency procedures in the Great Belt Tunnel,Denmark

Fire and rescue operations in tunnel fires: a discussion of some practical issues

Introduction
Reference assumptions
An accident has occurred and rescue work is in progress
Breathing apparatus operations in complicated environments
Extinguishing extensive fires in tunnels
The rescue work continues
The main problems in dealing with a fire and rescue situation in a tunnel and proposals for dealing with them
Proposed model for tackling fires in single-bore tunnels
Conclusions
References

Part VI Tunnel fire safety decision-making

Problems with using models for fire safety

Introduction
Models and the real world
Kinds of theoretical models
Models as part of tunnel fire safety decision-making
Illustrative case
The potential of a specific model in tunnel fire safety decision-making
An acceptable ‘methodology of use’
A‘knowledgeable user’
Evacuation modelling
Conclusion
References

Decision-making and risk assessment

Introduction
Prescriptive and risk-based approaches
Approach to design
Lack of independence and assessment of risk
Acceptability of risk
Cost–benefit analysis (CBA)
Cost-effectiveness’ approaches
Methodology for tunnel fire safety decision-making
References

Part VII Specific topics

The UPTUN project: a brief summary

Introduction
UPTUN objectives and work programme
WP 1: Prevention, detection and monitoring
WP 2: Fire development and mitigation measures
WP 3: Human response
WP 4: Fire effect and tunnel performance: system structural response
WP 5: Evaluation of safety levels and upgrading of existing tunnels
WP 6: Full-scale experimental proof – demonstration
WP 7: Promotion, dissemination, education/training and socio-economic impact
Conclusions
Recommendations for further research
Acknowledgements

The River Tyne road tunnels and fixed fire suppression

Contents
Introduction
Organising the change to the system
Deciding on a new system
Comparison of a FFSS with an in-house First-Response approach
The FFSS selected
The safety culture underpinning the operating philosophy
Use of the FFSS and ventilation at the same time
The positive return to society
Observations

Hydrogen-powered cars and tunnel safety

Introduction
Fuel release scenarios and fuel release rate
The hazards of hydrogen release in tunnels
Mitigation measures
Outlook

Index